Social housing: Difference between revisions
→Tower Buildings, Brooklyn
Tmccormick1 (talk | contribs) No edit summary |
Tmccormick1 (talk | contribs) |
||
| (11 intermediate revisions by the same user not shown) | |||
Line 1:
[[File:Karl-Marx-hof.jpg|thumb|right|550px|Karl Marx Hof, Vienna]]'''Social housing '''is housing owned and/or managed by governments or private organizations for the aim of
Various other terms are used in different places
According to ''The Dictionary of Urbanism'' by Robert Cowan (UK, 2005), "social housing" is: <blockquote>''"Housing provided for social purposes (rather than for profit), usually by local authorities, housing associations of housing trusts. In the UK, the term's wide currency dates from the early 1980s. It was coined by the then Conservative government as a more appropriate description than 'council housing', which the government planned effectively to abolish by discounted sales to tenants and transfers to housing associations."'' </blockquote>This article is (so far) focused particularly on the origins and early eras of social housing in the UK and US. Many practices were pioneered in the UK and to some extent in the US, in part because modern social housing was especially prompted by urban industrialized conditions and large cities, and the UK was the first country to heavily industrialize, and London and NYC were by the end of the 19thC the two largest cities in the world.
==
The portion of housing in different countries that could be called some form of 'social' housing varies widely, and depends on how defined. The below chart of estimates for "social ''rented dwellings" ''as a % of all housing across OECD nations, shows a range from 34% in Netherlands, to < 1% in Latvia. [OECD 2017].
[[File:OECD-social-rental-housing-as-percentage-of-all.jpg|thumb|left|700px|Social rental housing as % of all, across OECD]]
<div style="clear: both">
</div>
To roughly estimate social housing prevalence in the United States, there are various housing types which might be counted:
*
*2) [[LIHTC|'''LIHTC''' - '''Low Income Tax Credit funding''']]. Such units have affordability requirements on them for some period of time, as little as 15 years from construction but possibly longer or extended. This means ''some'' portion of LIHTC-funded homes have a rental subsidy, in a narrow sense that they are obligated to accept tenants within a certain range of area median income and charge them rents limited as a percentage of that income. => 3M homes created from start of program in 1986 through 2019. [source needed].
*
*'''4) [[Inclusionary housing]] programs''' create housing regulated to have some level of affordability, for some length of time, by requiring housing developers to included it in projects, or to contribute in-lieu fees which fund such housing elsewhere. According to the Lincoln Institute's 2017 study [Thaden & Wang 2017], US jurisdictions surveyed reported creating a total of 173,707 affordable units; also $1.7 billion in fees, typically used for funding other affordable housing, but that housing was not counted in the survey. Not all jurisdictions replied to the survey, so "due to missing data, these numbers substantially underestimate the total fees and units created."
**=> 200,000 units roughly estimated, with the rough guess that since Inclusionary programs are mostly fairly new, most units created by them are still under affordability requirements.
*5) '''[[Rent regulation]]''' makes rents generally lower than market rate. Mostly in California (especially LA, SF, Oakland, San Jose), NYC, and New Jersey. => 4M homes - very rough guess [need sources. Looked for it but haven't found yet].
<nowiki>-------------------</nowiki>
=> TOTAL: '''5M - 12M homes,''' or '''3.8% - 9.5% of US housing is social / assisted / low-income:'''
* 4.8M homes, or 3.8%, counting just public housing and flexible rent assistance, in both of which rent is typically a % of income.
* 5-8M homes, or 3.9 - 6.3%, counting Inclusionary and LIHTC homes, depending on how many of the 3M tax-credit-financed and Inclusionary homes are still within their affordability requirements, and how much you consider this a form of social / rent-subsidized housing.
* + 4M homes, so up to 9.5% of US housing, if you count rent-regulated housing. <br />
==
"The documented history of social housing in Britain starts with [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almshouse almshouses], which were established from the 10th century, to provide a place of residence for "poor, old and distressed folk". The first recorded almshouse was founded in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/York York] by [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King_Æthelstan_of_England King Æthelstan]; the oldest still in existence is the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hospital_of_St_Cross Hospital of St. Cross] in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Winchester Winchester], dating to circa 1133."<br /> -Wikipedia, "Public housing in the United Kingdom."
See also: ''caravansarai'', in central & southern Asia. <br />
===
"The world's oldest social housing complex still in use. It is a walled enclave within the city of '''Augsburg, Bavaria'''. It takes its name from the Fugger family and was founded in 1516 by Jakob Fugger the Younger (known as "Jakob Fugger the Rich") as a place where the needy citizens of Augsburg could be housed. By 1523, 52 houses had been built, and in the coming years the area expanded with various streets, small squares and a church. The gates were locked at night, so the Fuggerei was, in its own right, very similar to a small independent medieval town. It is still inhabited today, affording it the status of being the oldest social housing project in the world." [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuggerei [1]].
<br />
==
=== Les Invalides, Paris (1670-)
A significant emblem of publicly-provided housing for the needy, Les Invalides, "formally the Hôtel national des Invalides (The National Residence of the Invalids), or also as Hôtel des Invalides, is a complex of buildings in the 7th arrondissement of Paris, France, containing museums and monuments, all relating to the military history of France, as well as a hospital and a retirement home for war veterans, the building's original purpose."
"Louis XIV initiated the project by an order dated 24 November '''1670''', as a home and hospital for aged and unwell soldiers: the name is a shortened form of hôpital des invalides." -Wikipedia.
=== Royal Hospital Chelsea (1682-)
Like Les Invalides, the Royal Hospital (aka Greenwich Hospital) is an example of a civic/national monument that includes "public housing". It was created on the site of a former royal palace where many British monarchs including Queen Elizabeth I were born.
Line 46 ⟶ 55:
"King Charles II founded the Royal Hospital in 1682 as a retreat for veterans. The provision of a hostel rather than the payment of pensions was inspired by Les Invalides in Paris." -Wikipedia. "Royal Hospital Chelsea."
===
"The Royal Charter of William and Mary dated 25 October '''1694''' established the Royal Hospital for Seamen (latterly known as Greenwich Hospital). It was a home for retired seamen of the Royal Navy, and to provide support for seamens widows and education for their children, and the improvement of navigation. The first Pensioners arrived at Greenwich in 1705. By the end of the century there were more than 2,000 pensioners living there.
<br />
[[File:Trinity-Almshouses London from-The-Survey-of-London--Matt Garbutt 1896.jpg|alt=Trinity Almhouses, London, built in 1695. Image from The Survey of London, 1896.|thumb|600x600px|Trinity Almhouses, London, built in 1695. Image from The Survey of London, 1896.]]
===
(formerly '''Trinity Hospital'''), were originally built in 1695 to provide housing for retired sailors, by the Corporation of Trinity House, which is the official authority for lighthouses in England & Wales, established 1514. On Mile End Road in Whitechapel, they are the oldest almshouses in Central London.
Line 60 ⟶ 69:
"Prompted by the unwitting demolition of a Tudor hunting lodge in Bromley-By-Bow for a new school, the Arts and Crafts architect, designer and social reformer Charles Robert Ashbee set up a committee for the Survey of Memorials in Greater London in 1894. The first publication was a monograph devoted to Trinity Almshouses on the Mile End Road. It interwove architectural and social history and helped prevent demolition. Ashbee thus initiated a London-wide register of buildings of interest to bring together photographs, measured drawings and historical notes." [Survey of London. "The History of the Survey of London." accessed 17 April, 2020. [https://www.ucl.ac.uk/bartlett/architecture/research/survey-london/history-survey-london <nowiki>https://www.ucl.ac.uk/bartlett/architecture/research/survey-london/history-survey-london].</nowiki>]
<br />
=== Sailors' Home, London (1835)
[[File:Sailors-Home London 1835 from-British-Workman-1857-1024x525.jpg|alt=Sailors' Home, London, opened 1835|thumb|600x600px|Sailors' Home, London, opened 1835]]
"The Sailors’ Home, also known at first as the Brunswick Maritime Establishment, was built in 1830–5 with Philip Hardwick as its architect. Enlarged to Dock Street in 1863–5, substantially altered in 1911–12, rebuilt on the Dock Street side in 1954–7, adapted to be a hostel for the homeless in 1976–8, and again converted to be a youth hostel in 2012–14, this has been, ''mutatis mutandis'', a major local presence for nearly two centuries, all the while used as a hostel. As the first purpose-built short-stay hostel for sailors anywhere, it represented in its original form the invention of a building type, the Royal Hospital for Seamen in Greenwich notwithstanding. It was to have seminal influence on the development of lodging-house architecture."
Line 68 ⟶ 77:
"Between 1879 and 1884 Joseph Conrad (Jozef Korzeniowski) [the author and sailor] stayed several times at the Home and studied in its navigation school. Conrad called the Home a ‘friendly place’, ‘quietly unobtrusively, with a regard for the independence of the men who sought its shelter ashore, and with no ulterior aims behind that effective friendliness.’" [Joseph Conrad, ‘A Friendly Place’, ''Notes on Life and Letters'', 1912, p. 203]." - [Survey of London, 2019].
==
18th-19th-century English cities were among the earliest sites of modern industrialization, and industrial slums, and are where many current traditions of social housing and housing regulation begin.
Line 84 ⟶ 93:
[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Port_Sunlight Port Sunlight] in 1888.
==
===The slum city in literature and reports===
Line 111 ⟶ 120:
Roberts also designed a model lodging house off Drury Lane in 1846, but both this and Bagnippe Wells have been demolished. <div style="clear: both">
<br />
=== 1848 World's Fair - Model Houses for Families ===
"Roberts went on to design the Model Houses shown at the Great Exhibition of the'''1848 World’s Fair,''' hosted in London. Prince Albert sponsored the “Model Houses for Families,” a model tenement which was subsequently built in Bloomsbury, England. Each apartment was cross ventilated -- all rooms had windows that faced either the street of the generously sized courtyard and the staircases were moved to the exterior of the construction, eliminating any dark hallways."<br /> <br /> See image of this in [Mumford, ''The Culture of Cities,''1938] p.212.
"The Model Houses for Families are now re-erected in Kennington Park Road."
The design was further developed on by Sir Sydney Waterlow and his Improved Dwellings Company for their Langbourn Building in London in 1863. [Flandro et al, 2008]. This had 80 dwellings. Sir Sydney Waterlow subsequently led building of the Corporation Houses on Farringdon road, completed 1865 (see below).
</div>
=== Parnell House (1850, SICLC) ===
"[Henry Roberts'] next project for the Society, was Parnell House, group of dwellings for 48 families in three blocks built around a courtyard in Streatham Street, near the British Museum, which remains in use as housing. Access to the apartments is by wrought-iron balconies, they are of fireproof construction, and each, at the time of construction, had its own water closet, a revolutionary feature for working class dwellings in England." https://www.erih.net/i-want-to-go-there/site/show/Sites/streatham-street-apartments-parnell-house/.
"Parnell House was built in 1850 by the Society for Improving the Condition of the Labouring Classes (SICLC). The land, owned by the Duke of Bedford, was leased for 99 years. In 1965 Peabody took over the former SICLC and all of its remaining London properties. Parnell had played an important role for Peabody long before that: Peabody’s 1964 Annual Report described the development ‘a shining example of good design’ from the 1850s and stated that ‘it was visited by Mr Peabody and may well have influenced him in the manner of his gift to the London poor’.
Line 120 ⟶ 139:
===Investment vs philanthropy: The Metropolitan Association vs the SICLC===
Metropolitan Association for Improving the Dwellings of the Industrial Poor.
In 1844 the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Labourer's_Friend_Society '''Society for Improving the Condition of the Labouring Classes''']
see discussion by Henry Roberts <div style="clear: both"><br />
=== Peabody Trust philanthropic housing (1863-) ===
"The Trust was founded in 1862 by London-based American banker George Peabody, who in the 1850s had developed a great affection for London, and determined to make a charitable gift to benefit it. The aim of the organisation, he said, would be to "ameliorate the condition of the poor and needy of this great metropolis, and to promote their comfort and happiness".
"The Peabody Trust was later constituted by Act of Parliament, stipulating its objectives to work solely within London for the relief of poverty. This was to be expressed through the provision of model dwellings for the capital's poor.
"Today it is one of London's oldest and largest housing associations with around 55,000 properties across London and the South East. It is also a community benefit society and urban regeneration agency, a developer with a focus on regeneration, and a provider of an extensive range of community programmes." -Wikipedia, "Peabody Trust".
<br /></div>
==== Peabody building on Commercial Street (completed 1864) ====
[[File:Peabody-Building Commercial Street London 1864 4.jpg|none|thumb|700x700px]]
<br />
[[File:Peabody-Building Commercial Street London 1864 2jpg.jpg|alt=1st Peabody Trust building, Commercial Street, London, completed 1864|none|thumb|640x640px|1st Peabody Trust building, Commercial Street, London, completed 1864]]
<br />
[[File:Peabody-Building Commercial Street London 1864 3.jpg|alt=1st Peabody Trust building, Commercial Street, London, completed 1864|none|thumb|500x500px|1st Peabody Trust building, Commercial Street, London, completed 1864]]
[[File:Peabody-Building Commercial Street London 1864 1.jpg|alt=1st Peabody Trust building, Commercial Street, London, completed 1864|none|thumb|760x760px|1st Peabody Trust building, Commercial Street, London, completed 1864]]
==== Peabody Square, Islington (1865) ====
<br />
===City of London Corporation Houses on Farringdon Road (1865) ===
"In some respects an archetypal Victorian improvement, Farringdon Road was nevertheless the final stage in a piece of town planning begun in the mid-eighteenth century, while in general terms it had been conceived of even earlier. A road through the Fleet valley linking the City with western Clerkenwell was part of Wren's thinking for his projected reconstruction of London after the Great Fire."
"For years, Farringdon Road was characterized by the wasteland of cleared sites and shored-up houses through which it passed. Building development, mostly for manufacturing and warehousing, but with some block dwellings, terrace-houses and pubs, did not begin until the mid-1860s."
Line 161 ⟶ 192:
Artisans' and Labourers' Dwellings Improvement Act 1875 [UK]<br />
===St Martin's Cottages, Liverpool Council / Corporation (1869)===
"The City of London Corporation built tenements in Farringdon Road in 1865, but this was an isolated instance. The first council to build housing as an integrated policy was Liverpool Corporation, starting with St Martin's Cottages in Ashfield Street, Vauxhall, completed in 1869. The Corporation then built Victoria Square Dwellings, opened by Home Secretary Sir Richard Cross in 1885." -Wikipedia.
"The [1846] Liverpool Sanitary Act – ‘the first piece of comprehensive health legislation passed in England’ – made the Council responsible for drainage, paving, sewerage and cleaning. It also appointed a Council Medical Officer of Health – another first." It was strengthened by a further Act in 1864." [Stoughton 2013 - "Municipal Housing in Liverpool before 1914: the ‘first council houses in Europe’". ''Municipal Dreams'' blog, 8 Oct 2013. https://municipaldreams.wordpress.com/2013/10/08/liverpool-first-council-houses-in-europe/].
[[File:St-Martins-Cottages Liverpool completed-1869 1944-photo2.jpg|alt=St Martin’s Cottages, completed 1869 in Ashfield Street, Vauxhall, Liverpool. |thumb|600x600px|St Martin’s Cottages, completed 1869 in Ashfield Street, Vauxhall, Liverpool. ]]
"The St Martin’s Cottages, completed in 1869 in Ashfield Street, Vauxhall [were] the first council housing to be built in England. The ‘cottages’ were tenements – 146 flats and maisonettes in two four-storey blocks, brick-built with open staircases and separate WCs placed on the half-landings. The result was so bleak that even the trade magazine ''The Builder'' concluded that those who built for the poor should ‘mix a little philanthropy with their per-centage calculations’." [Stoughton 2013].
The cottages are discussed by Colin Pooley of Lancaster in "Living in Liverpool", an essay in J. Belchem (Ed.), ''Liverpool 800 : Character, Culture, History : Culture, Character and History'' (Liverpool University Press, 2006), here noted by a commenter at [https://streetsofliverpool.co.uk/st-martins-cottages/ Streets of Liverpool]: <blockquote>
''"St Martin's Cottages comprised six blocks of three-and five-story tenements that provided 124 dwellings. He doesn?t say how many blocks of each type there were. I assume the extra storey he mentions was the cellars shown sealed off in the 1973 view.''
''Professor Pooley makes some interesting points about the extent to which St Martin's Cottages failed to fulfil the Council's target of 'providing housing for the poorest poor'. He shows that the rents were too expensive for most displaced by the slum clearance scheme and he backs this up with an analysis of the 1871 census that indicates a clear bias to the upper end of the working class spectrum. He concludes that council housing before 1918 accounted for only 6.5% of all new building in Liverpool and rarely provided homes for those most in need."''</blockquote>
[[File:St-Martins-Cottages-1954 StreetsofLiverpool.jpg|alt=St Martin's Cottages, completed 1869 in Vauxhall, Liverpool. 1954 photograph. |thumb|700x700px|St Martin's Cottages, completed 1869 in Vauxhall, Liverpool. 1954 photograph. ]]
['''Dockerill 2016''']: "Liverpool Corporation and the origins of municipal social housing, 1842–1890." ''Transactions of the Historic Society of Lancashire and Cheshire, 165, 39–56:''
"The Liverpool Sanitary Amendment Act 1864 ‘effected an enormous increase in the powers of the Corporation at the time unparalleled’ in England,<sup>33</sup> ‘confer[ring] upon the Corporation completely new powers to repair or demolish houses which it considered … to be unfit for human habitation’,<sup>34</sup> and prohibiting the construction of back-to-back houses within the town. The 1864 Act also sounded the effective death knell of court building."
"Faced with chronic pauperism, an increasing death rate, and a depleting stock of affordable working-class housing, the Corporation agreed the purchase of ‘five pieces of land belonging to Alderman Houghton in the vicinity of St Martin’s Church, with a view to secure the erection thereon of Labourers’ Dwellings’ on 9 May 1866.'"
"However, this action should not be interpreted as evidence of a municipal desire to become a tenant landlord for the town’s poorest. Councillor Robinson, the seconder of the resolution, assured Council members that there was ‘no idea of suggesting that the Corporation should undertake the erection of the dwellings themselves’. Rather, it was motivated by a shrewd understanding of realpolitik based upon three core contentions. First, there was a civic and humanitarian desire to address the death rate; as Councillor J.R. Jeffrey proclaimed, councillors ‘could no longer stand still and see their fellow creatures die around them without … making the experiment and seeing whether the course … suggested would succeed’. Second, and typical of the competitive spirit of the Victorian period, councillors worried whether a failure to motivate the private sector to build working-class housing would result in Liverpool falling behind urban rivals such as Glasgow, London, and Leeds. Finally, in motivating the working class to strive for better accommodation, the Corporation hoped that increased business opportunities would ultimately arise for private builders." [Dockerill 2016].
[[File:St-Martins-Cottages completed-1869 1973-photo-StreetsofLiverpool.jpg|alt=St Martin's Cottages, completed 1869 in Vauxhall, Liverpool. 1973 photograph. |thumb|611x611px|St Martin's Cottages, completed 1869 in Vauxhall, Liverpool. 1973 photograph. ]]
"Those engaged as casual labourers were effectively barred from tenancy. Therefore, although the Corporation had provided the country’s first purpose-built municipal houses for the working classes, such was the limited scope of both their construction and the sum of rent charged that ''The Porcupine'' declared that the cottages ‘had failed … in any form or degree [to] accomplish any practical solution of the great question of how best to house the poor’.
''"Only when there was either a change in the political willingness to offer rent subsidies to the very poorest and to sanction greater municipal and/or national intervention in housing issues (including rent), or a willingness on the part of the poor themselves to take control of their own ‘sanitary, social, and moral elevation’, would substantial progress would be made.'' [italics added -tm].
"The 1871 Report of Drs Parkes and Sanderson on the Sanitary Condition of Liverpool noted, however, that the former course of action was politically impossible, for it would mean that the Corporation ‘would be simply offering a premium to pauperism’, while with regard to the latter, progress seemed unlikely. As Trench lamented, without education to the contrary the poorest saw no ‘necessity of taking decent houses’, with many instead choosing to squat rather than pay rent and, in fact, systematically destroying the property in which they were living. This was a class of potential tenant that the Corporation was not prepared to accept.
"Though St Martin’s Cottages were the nation’s first municipally-built houses for the working class, not only were they an experiment—a model for private builders to emulate—but the provisions of the Liverpool Sanitary Amendment Act 1864 under which they were constructed were not intended to enable the authority to purchase swathes of insanitary houses in order to create building plots of a suitable size to undertake rebuilding. Neither did it place any requirement upon the Corporation to rehouse those whom it displaced." [Dockerill 2016]
===Farringdon Road Buildings, London (1875), by Metropolitan Association ===
Farringdon Road Buildings, built by Metropolitan Association for Improving the Dwellings of the Industrial Poor in mid-1870s opposite Corporation Buildings.
(an image of it was included in Mumford, ''The Culture of Cities,''1938, p.212..
described in Gissing, George. ''The Nether World'' (1889).
===Victoria Square Dwellings, Liverpool Council (1885) ===
"The Insanitary Property Committee, established in 1883, gave teeth to the 1864 Act and cleared a notorious area of slum housing in Nash Grove but what to do with those displaced? The Council still hoped that private enterprise might step up to the challenge but speculative building profits lay in the suburbs. Once more, the Council undertook to build itself on a plan devised by then City Engineer, Clement Dunscombe." This produced the Victoria Square Dwellings, completed in 1885." [Stoughton 2013].
"their construction was accompanied by a specific policy acknowledgement by the council that it had a duty of care with regards to the housing conditions of those displaced through slum clearance programmes."
Dockerill, Bertie (2015). "From St Martin's Cottages to Juvenal Dwellings: Liverpool's pioneering role in the provision of public housing." ''Liverpool History Journal'' 14 (2015). <nowiki>https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/131169926.pdf</nowiki>.
<br />
Line 196 ⟶ 244:
===
"The world’s first large-scale [public] housing project was also built in London, to replace one of the capital’s most notorious slums – the Old Nichol. Nearly 6,000 individuals were crammed into the packed streets, where one child in four died before his or her first birthday. Arthur Morrison wrote the influential ''A Child of the Jago'', an account of the life of a child in the slum, which sparked a public outcry.
Line 223 ⟶ 271:
<div style="clear: both">
Line 230 ⟶ 278:
== Housing reform and Model Tenements in the US ==
<div style="clear: both">
US housing reform and social housing has somewhat paralleled that in the UK, particularly in the 19thC with studies on and responses to slum conditions in New York City, the development of philanthropic housing, and tenement reform regulations. Public housing, however, came much later and to a much smaller part of the population: briefly as wartime worker housing in WWI, and then widely starting in mid-1930s, with new construction largely ending by the early 1980s and total units capped by law. As with the UK's shift in new construction from council housing largely to private "housing associations" and market housing in the 1980s, and also later to Housing Benefit subsidy, the US shifted largely to supporting private development with Low Income Tax Credits, and individuals with housing vouchers.
A definitive study of US housing reform movement, focusing particularly on New York City, is James Ford. [https://archive.org/details/slumshousingwith0001ford Slums and Housing - With Special Reference to New York City - History, Conditions, Policy]. Harvard University Press, 1936. [Ford 1936].
Summarized and extended by helpful paper: <br /> Hoffman, Alexander von. "[https://www.jchs.harvard.edu/sites/default/files/von_hoffman_w98-2.pdf. The Origins of American Housing Reform]." Harvard University Joint Center for Housing Studies, publication W98-2, August 1998.
<br />
====Workingman's Home, NYC, 1855====
Line 250 ⟶ 304:
===NYC Council of Hygiene's Tenement Survey & model plans ===
"With the United States government hesitant to intervene in housing problems (the government saw this as an invasion on private property rights), civic groups, architects and philanthropists began to look for possible solutions to the housing conditions in New York in foreign projects, particularly in Britain and France.
"In the 1860s were established the New York City Council of Hygiene, a Citizens Association, and the Department of Survey and
</div>
====Tower Buildings, Brooklyn
[[File:Tower-Buildings-Brooklyn-1879-1.jpg|thumb|right|600px|Tower Buildings model worker housing, Brooklyn, 1879]]
Line 266 ⟶ 320:
See Gray (2008), "[http://www.nytimes.com/2008/10/12/realestate/12scap.html Architectural Wealth, Built for the Poor]." New York Times. 10 Oct, 2008. http://www.nytimes.com/2008/10/12/realestate/12scap.html.
Note: HousingWiki editor Tim McCormick lived for seven years near the Tower Buildings.[[File:2-Warren-Place-Brooklyn-1870s.jpg|thumb|right|700px|2 Warren Place (Warren Mews) worker housing, Brooklyn, 1870s]] Alfred Tredway White also built nearby Warren Mews (2 Warren Place, 1877).. See [Hogarty 2012].
<div style="clear: both">
White, Alfred Tredway. ''Improved Dwellings for the Working Classes: The need, and the way to meet it on strict commercial pinciples''. (1877, revised 1879). At Internet Archive: https://archive.org/details/improveddwelling00whit.
____. ''Better Homes for Workingmen'' (1885).
____. ''Riverside Buildings'' (1890).
all of above available at Internet
</div>
==United States public housing==
<div style="clear: both"> </div>
[[File:Mare-Island-Vallejo-USHC-housing-1919.jpg|thumb|right|600px|USHC worker housing at Mare Island, Vallejo, California. 1915 plan]]
===
Ben-Joseph, Eran. "[http://web.mit.edu/ebj/www/ww1/ww1a.html Workers' Paradise: The Forgotten Communities of World War I]." Online research project, MIT School of Architecture+ Planning. <br /> http://web.mit.edu/ebj/www/ww1/ww1a.html.
Line 309 ⟶ 368:
Today the area is [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garden_Homes_Historic_District_(Milwaukee,_Wisconsin) Garden Homes Historic District], containing all of the 93 original buildings, comprising 105 housing units.
===
Illinois Senator Paul Douglas published "The Coming of a New Party" in 1932 [Douglas 1932], calling for a US equivalent to the UK Labour Party. Among other topics, he also proposed mixed-income public housing, adapted from the Vienna model, paid for with rents, land value tax, and Federal subsidies. <br />
Line 317 ⟶ 376:
First Houses take their name from their distinction of being the first public housing units constructed in the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States United States], opening for the first tenants on December 3, 1935. [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victorian_architecture Victorian]-era [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tenement tenements] existed on the site before they were cleared to build the project, which was also the very first project undertaken by the city's new [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_City_Housing_Authority Housing Authority]. The units opened in December 1935.
[note:
Line 332 ⟶ 391:
from: Congressional Research Service. "Overview of Federal Housing Assistance Programs and Policy." July 22, 2008 – March 27, 2019.
<blockquote>"The '''Housing Act of 1959''' (P.L. 86-372) ''was the first significant instance where government incentives were used to persuade private developers to build housing that would be affordable to low- and moderate-income households.'' As part of P.L. 86-372, Congress created the Section 202 Housing for the Elderly program. Through the Section 202 program, the federal government extended low-interest loans to private nonprofit organizations for the development of affordable housing for moderate-income residents age 62 and older. The low interest rates were meant to ensure that units would be affordable, with nonprofit developers being able to charge lower rents and still have adequate revenue to pay back the government loans.
"The Housing Act of 1961 (P.L. 87-70) further expanded the role of the private sector in providing housing to low- and moderate-income households. The act created the Section 221(d)(3) Below Market Interest Rate (BMIR) housing program, which both insured mortgages to private developers of multifamily housing and provided loans to developers at low interest rates. The BMIR program expanded the pool of eligible borrowers to private for-profit developers and government entities, as well as nonprofit developers. Eligible developers included cooperatives, limited-dividend corporations, and state or local government agencies. Like the Section 202 program, the low interest rates in the BMIR program were meant to ensure that building owners could offer affordable rents to tenants.
"The Housing and Urban Development Act of 1965 (P.L. 89-117) added rental assistance to the list of incentives for private multifamily housing developers that participated in the Section 221(d)(3) BMIR program. The Rent Supplement Program, enacted as part of P.L. 89-117, capped the rents charged to participating tenants at 20% of their incomes and paid building owners the difference between 20% of a tenant's income and fair market rent. P.L. 89-117 also created the Section 23 leased housing program, which was the first program to provide rent subsidies for use with existing private rental market units.</blockquote> <blockquote>"'''The Housing and Urban Development Act of 1968 '''(P.L. 90-448) created the '''Section 236''' and '''Section 235''' programs. In the Section 236 program, the government subsidized private developers' mortgage interest payments so that they would not pay more than 1% toward interest. Some Section 236 units also received rent subsidies (referred to as Rental Assistance Payments [RAP]) to make them affordable to the lowest-income tenants. The Section 235 program instituted mortgage interest reduction payments similar to the Section 236 program, but for individual homeowners rather than multifamily housing developers. Through it, eligible borrowers could obtain FHA-insured mortgages with subsidized interest rates. As the program was originally enacted, HUD was to make subsidy payments to the lender in order to reduce the interest rate on the mortgage to as low as 1%.</blockquote> <blockquote>"By the end of the 1960s, subsidies to private developers had resulted in the creation of hundreds of thousands of rental housing units. ''Approximately 700,000 units of housing had been built through the Section 236 and Section 221(d)(3) programs'' alone.7 The Section 202 program had created more than 45,000 units for elderly households.8 The Section 235 program and Section 23 leased-housing program provided ownership and rental subsidies for thousands more. Through 1972, the Section 235 program subsidized nearly 400,000 homeowners,9 while the Section 23 leased-housing program provided rent subsidies for more than 38,000 private market rental units.10 Despite the growth in the role of private developers, public housing was still the largest housing subsidy program, with roughly 1 million units built and subsidized by the early 1970s.11</blockquote> <blockquote>
"Another development during the 1960s was an '''income-based rent structure'''. Under the public housing program, tenants generally paid rent in an amount equal to the costs of operating the assisted housing in which they lived. Over time, as operating costs rose, there was a concern that the below-market rents being charged were too high to be affordable to the poorest families. The Brooke Amendment, which was included as part of the Housing and Urban Development Act of 1969 (P.L. 91-152), limited tenant contributions toward rent in all rent assisted units (including public housing and all project-based rental assistance units) to an amount equal to 25% of tenant income (this was later raised to 30%). '''The Brooke Amendment is considered to be responsible for codifying an income-based rent structure''' in federal housing programs."
</blockquote>
Line 346 ⟶ 409:
===Contemporary mixed or middle-income housing
Headwaters Apartment & Headwaters Village, Portland.
Line 380 ⟶ 443:
"inexpensive housing" system established in France in 1894 via the Siegfried law, financed mainly by charitable sources. Predecessor to HLM system.
=== HLM: Habitation à Loyer Modéré===
("rent-controlled housing"), a form of private or public social housing in France, Algeria, Senegal, Quebec; started 1950. 16% of French housing. 1998 law requires French towns to have 20%+ HLM. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HLM<br />
=== French contract units system (contemporary)===
contracting for affordable units in private developments is how France mostly does it:
Line 402 ⟶ 465:
==
wikipedia says Urban Renaissance manages about 750k units. Japan has about 50M households, so UR/social housing is about 1.5% of households. For comparison, US Federal rent assistance (Public, Sec 8 project, Sec 8 voucher, etc) helps about 4.8M of 326M population, also about 1.5%
Line 412 ⟶ 475:
==Contemporary proposals
===SF YIMBY proposal for mixed-income public housing (2017- )===
Line 424 ⟶ 487:
[[File:Peoples-Policy-Project--Social-Housing-report-cover-2018.jpg|thumb|right|500px|PPP]]
=== People's Policy Project social housing proposal (2018)
In April 5, 2018, the People's Policy Project (founded by writer Matt Breunig) released "[https://www.peoplespolicyproject.org/2018/04/05/a-plan-to-solve-the-housing-crisis-through-social-housing/ A Plan to Solve the Housing Crisis Through Social Housing]," authored by Irish political organizer Peter Gowan and New York-based journalist Ryan Cooper. [Gowan 2018].
Line 442 ⟶ 505:
[[File:A-National-Homes-Guarantee-Briefing-Book-2019.jpg|thumb|right|500px|A National Homes Guarantee, Briefing Book (Sept 2019)]]
=== Homes Guarantee initiative from People's Action (2019)===
<blockquote>''"For decades, tenants, residents of public and subsidized housing, and people experiencing homelessness have been organizing to protect their rights and win structural reforms, in and across cities, suburbs, and small towns, all over the country. People’s Action has a long history of driving visionary housing policy. Our members, along with movement partners, have won landmark reforms like the Home Mortgage Disclosure Act (1975), Community Reinvestment Act (1977), Dodd-Frank (2010), and much more at the state and local levels.'' ''"Grassroots leaders, as a part of the People’s Action housing justice cohort, developed the Homes Guarantee framework over a year ago. Since then, we launched an intensive organizing process: building our base through popular education trainings on racial capitalism and housing policy, forging relationships with legislative champions, hosting a briefing with the Congressional Progressive Caucus, recruiting a policy team, and, finally, drafting our ambitious proposal for a national Homes Guarantee. We completed a draft in late July.'' ''"Since then, our member organizations and grassroots leaders have picked it apart and put it back together, making our vision bigger, bolder, and more responsive to community needs. Additionally, over 115 movement allies and institutions have reviewed the draft and submitted feedback''</blockquote>
Line 475 ⟶ 538:
*Bonnewit, Natalie. “[http://www.gmfus.org/publications/affordable-housing-amsterdam-and-copenhagen-lessons-san-francisco-bay-area Affordable Housing in Amsterdam and Copenhagen: Lessons for the San Francisco Bay Area].” German Marshall Fund of the United States, 8 December 2017. http://www.gmfus.org/publications/affordable-housing-amsterdam-and-copenhagen-lessons-san-francisco-bay-area.<br />
*Boughton, John. ''Municipal Dreams: The Rise and Fall of Council Housing'', 2018. <br />
* Boughton, John. "Workers' housing, 1776, in Cromford Village, courtesy of Richard Arkwright and up the hill its 20th century democratic equivalent." [https://twitter.com/MunicipalDreams/status/1102187952732545025?s=20 Tweet Mar 3, 2019]. . <br />
* Calavita, Nico, and Alan Mallach (Eds). ''Inclusionary Housing in International Perspective: Affordable Housing, Social Inclusion, and Land Value Recapture''. Lincoln Institute of Land Policy, July 2010.<br /> [http://www.lincolninst.edu/sites/default/files/pubfiles/inclusionary-housing-in-international-perspective-chp.pdf Table of Contents, Forward, Preface, Ch. 1]. [http://www.lincolninst.edu/sites/default/files/pubfiles/inclusionary-housing-in-international-perspective-chp.pdf. http://www.lincolninst.edu/sites/default/files/pubfiles/inclusionary-housing-in-international-perspective-chp.pdf. ]<br />
*Carter, Leighton. "The Slum of All Fears: Dickens's Concern with Urban Poverty and Sanitation." article in Brown University's Victorianweb.org, 2007.<br />
*Comptroller General of the United States. "[https://www.gao.gov/assets/130/121049.pdf Section 236 Rental Housing -- An Evaluation With Lessons For The Future.]" PAD-78-13 JANUARY 10, 1978. https://www.gao.gov/assets/130/121049.pdf<br /> ''"This report presents a comprehensive evaluation of the section 236 program; compares section 236 to many other Federal programs;<br /> and discusses investment incentives, program equity, subsidized tenants and program impact. The 236 program has succeded in providing nearly half a million housing units to an income group which is now largely excluded from housing assistance.<br /> It contains recommendations to the Congress and the Department of Housing and Urban Development which would assure that moderate income households receive a reasonable share of future housing assistance."''<br />
*Congressional Research Service. "[https://www.everycrsreport.com/reports/RL34591.html Overview of Federal Housing Assistance Programs and Policy]." July 22, 2008 – March 27, 2019. https://www.everycrsreport.com/reports/RL34591.html.<br />
* Conrad, Joseph. (1912) "A Friendly Place/" ''Notes on Life and Letters'', 1912, p. 203. cited in [Survey of London, 2019].<br />
*Curl, James S. (1983). ''The life and work of Henry Roberts, 1803-1876: the evangelical conscience and the campaign for model housing and healthy nations''. Chichester : Phillimore, 1983. <br />
*Dockerill, Bertie (2015). "From St Martin's Cottages to Juvenal Dwellings: Liverpool's pioneering role in the provision of public housing." ''Liverpool History Journal'' 14 (2015). <nowiki>https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/131169926.pdf</nowiki>. <br />
*Dockerill, Bertie. (2016). "Liverpool Corporation and the origins of municipal social housing, 1842–1890." ''Transactions of the Historic Society of Lancashire and Cheshire'', 165, 39–56. doi:10.3828/transactions.165.5.<blockquote>''"Abstract:'' ''This article addresses the improvements made to the housing and sanitation conditions of Liverpool’s working-class poor through a series of municipal initiatives between 1842 and 1890. In the vanguard of municipal social responsibility initiatives nationally, the Corporation of Liverpool rejected prevailing laissez-faire attitudes, setting a benchmark for sanitary improvements before clearing slums in order to construct the country’s first purpose-built council housing. With regard to the latter, the Corporation initially sought to stress its role as being one of educating the private sector as to what might be achieved, rather than becoming a long-term provider of social housing. In the twenty years after 1866, that which had been conceived as a model became a stated policy objective. While laudable in intent, the existing framework of limited local governance meant that only the smallest percentage of working-class residents was directly aided. As the article concludes, further progress was only made once the issue of housing provision was allied to that of rentable values charged. This was a policy development dependent upon national legislative changes and thus one upon which Liverpool Corporation could not act alone."'' </blockquote>
*Douglas, Paul. ''The Coming of a New Party''. (1932). [https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015004856913&view=1up&seq=11. https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015004856913&view=1up&seq=11. ] [version with images viewable online; text-only version downloadable as PDF].<br />
*Flandro et al (2008). "[https://www.scribd.com/document/2963635/Progressive-Housing-in-New-York-City-A-Closer-Look-at-Model-Tenements-and-Finnish-Cooperatives Progressive Housing in New York City: A Closer Look at Model Tenements and Finnish Cooperatives]."<br /> (Xsusha Carlyann Flandro, Christine Huh, Negin Maleki, Mariana Sarango-Manaças, & Jennifer Schork; for Historical Preservation Graduate Studio II, Columbia University, Spring 2008). <br /> [https://www.scribd.com/document/2963635/Progressive-Housing-in-New-York-City-A-Closer-Look-at-Model-Tenements-and-Finnish-Cooperatives. https://www.scribd.com/document/2963635/Progressive-Housing-in-New-York-City-A-Closer-Look-at-Model-Tenements-and-Finnish-Cooperatives. ]<br />
*Ford, James. Slums and Housing - With Special Reference to New York City - History, Conditions, Policy. Harvard University Press, 1936 https://archive.org/details/slumshousingwith0001ford.<br />
*Gill, Stephen. "Notes" to Oxford University Press edition of ''The Nether World'' by George Gissing. 1992. <br />
*Gissing, George (1889).
*Government Accountability Office, United States (GAO). "[https://www.gao.gov/mobile/products/PAD-78-62 Section 236 Rental Housing: An Assessment of HUD's Comments on GAO's Evaluations.]" PAD-78-62, Apr 20, 1978. https://www.gao.gov/mobile/products/PAD-78-62.<br />
*Gowan, Peter, and Ryan Cooper. "[https://www.peoplespolicyproject.org/2018/04/05/a-plan-to-solve-the-housing-crisis-through-social-housing/ A Plan to Solve the Housing Crisis Through Social Housing]." People's Policy Project, April 5, 2018. [https://www.peoplespolicyproject.org/2018/04/05/a-plan-to-solve-the-housing-crisis-through-social-housing/. https://www.peoplespolicyproject.org/2018/04/05/a-plan-to-solve-the-housing-crisis-through-social-housing/. ]<br />
Line 495 ⟶ 560:
*Hoffman, Alexander von [1998]. "[https://www.jchs.harvard.edu/sites/default/files/von_hoffman_w98-2.pdf The Origins of American Housing Reform]." Harvard University Joint Center for Housing Studies, publication W98-2, August 1998. [https://www.jchs.harvard.edu/sites/default/files/von_hoffman_w98-2.pdf. https://www.jchs.harvard.edu/sites/default/files/von_hoffman_w98-2.pdf. ]<br />
*Hogarty, Dave. "[https://ny.curbed.com/2012/2/15/10396106/warren-mews-cottage-for-workingman-with-1-375-million Warren Mews Cottage For Workingman With $1.375 Million.]" Curbed NY, Feb 15, 2012. [https://ny.curbed.com/2012/2/15/10396106/warren-mews-cottage-for-workingman-with-1-375-million. https://ny.curbed.com/2012/2/15/10396106/warren-mews-cottage-for-workingman-with-1-375-million. ]<br />
* Ingalls, Julia. "[https://archinect.com/features/article/149956316/touring-some-of-the-world-s-most-attractive-public-housing-projects Touring some of the world's most attractive public housing projects.]" ''Archinect. ''August 9, 2016. <br />
*Karakusevic, Paul, and Abigail Batchelor. (2017). ''Social Housing: Definitions and Design Exemplars''. RIBA Publishing, 2017. <br />
*Kay, James Phillips (1832). ''The moral and physical condition of the working classes employed in the cotton manufacture in Manchester.'' https://archive.org/details/moralphysicalcon00kaysuoft/. <br />
*Kemeny, Jim. "From Public Housing to Social Market" (1995). https://books.google.com/books?id=DjGIAgAAQBAJ&pg=PR1&lpg=PR1&dq=Jim+Kemeny+From+Public+Housing+to+Social+Market&source=bl&ots=Z9PNHbPSHq&sig=Sxrayape8GgzGi1dbj8Df2rpQ1Q&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwj95enOgvXUAhWHx4MKHa8LDiQQ6AEISjAN#v=onepage&q&f=false.<br />
* Lubarsky, Zack. "#SocialHousing." Blog post, 23 April 2018. http://hashtaghashtag.org/blog-1/2018/4/22/socialhousing.<br /> "What if the city instead ''buys'' apartment buildings on the open market, and rent them out to pay back the municipal bonds?" brief financial analysis using Seattle. <br />
*Mallach, Alan. "Using the Wrong Tools to Build Affordable Housing." ''Shelterforce, ''1 March 2016. <br /> ''"Now, when French developers build subdivisions or condo projects, nonprofit housing corporations enter into turnkey contracts with the developer to buy blocs of apartments or houses, up to a maximum of 50 percent, of the units in the development. Based on those contracts, the nonprofits apply for a package of government loans, grants, and tax breaks so they can both buy the units and make sure they remain affordable. When the projects are completed, the nonprofit buys the units and operates them as affordable rental housing."''<br />
*Mayhew, Henry. ''London Labour and the London Poor''. (periodical publication in 1840s; collected for book publication in 1851).<br />
Line 505 ⟶ 571:
*Mumford, Lewis [1938]. ''The Culture of Cities. ''<br />
*OECD - Social Policy Division. "Social Rental Housing Stock." Last updated on 06/03/2017. <br /> https://www.oecd.org/els/family/PH4-2-Social-rental-housing-stock.pdf.<br /> Compares social rental housing stock across all OECD nations. <br />
*Plunz, Richard (2016). ''A History of Housing in New York City.''
*Pooley, C. (2006). "Living in Liverpool". In J. Belchem (Ed.), ''Liverpool 800 : Character, Culture, History : Culture, Character and History'' (pp. 171-255). Liverpool University Press.<br />
*Radford, Gail. ''Modern Housing for America: Policy Struggles in the New Deal Era'' (1996).<br />
*Roberts, Henry. (1850, 1855, 1867). ''The dwellings of the labouring classes, their arrangement and construction: with the essentials of a healthy dwelling''. London: Society for Improving the Condition of the Labouring Classes. 1855 2nd edition: https://archive.org/details/dwellingslabouringclasses/. 1867 revised and augmented edition: https://archive.org/details/dwellingsoflabou00robe/. <br />
*Royal Commission on the Housing of the Working Classes, 1884-5 - Report. <br />
*Stoughton, John. "Municipal Housing in Liverpool before 1914: the ‘first council houses in Europe’". ''Municipal Dreams'' blog, 8 Oct 2013. <nowiki>https://municipaldreams.wordpress.com/2013/10/08/liverpool-first-council-houses-in-europe/</nowiki>. <br />
Line 513 ⟶ 581:
*Survey of London. "The History of the Survey of London." accessed 17 April, 2020. [https://www.ucl.ac.uk/bartlett/architecture/research/survey-london/history-survey-london https://www.ucl.ac.uk/bartlett/architecture/research/survey-london/history-survey-london.]<br />
*Tarn, John Nelson. [https://books.google.com/books?id=yCQ9AAAAIAAJ Five Per Cent Philanthropy: An Account of Housing in Urban Areas Between 1840 and 1914]. Cambridge University Press, 1973. <br /> https://books.google.com/books?id=yCQ9AAAAIAAJ.<br />
*Thaden, Emily and Ruoniu Wang<sup>1</sup>. (2017) "Inclusionary Housing in the United States: Prevalence, Impact, and Practices." Lincoln Institute of Land Policy, September 2017. <sup>1</sup> both of Grounded Solutions Network. <br />
*Trauss, Sonja [2018]. "Socialism is here, if you want it." [https://twitter.com/SonjaTrauss/status/970825100294533121?s=20 Tweet, Mar 5, 2018, 4:55pm]. (referencing [Trauss 2018b] below). <br />
*Trauss, Sonja [2018b]. Description of mixed-income social housing on San Francisco public land. Tweet, Mar 5, 2018. <br /> https://twitter.com/SonjaTrauss/status/970821176296534016?s=20.<br />
Line 520 ⟶ 589:
*White, Alfred Tredway. ''Improved Dwellings for the Working Classes: The need, and the way to meet it on strict commercial pinciples''. (1877, revised 1879). <br /> ____. ''Better Homes for Workingmen'' (1885). <br /> ____. ''Riverside Buildings ''(1890).<br /> all of above available at Internet Archive [https://books.google.com/books?id=-hVRAQAAMAAJ [1]]. <br />
*Whitman, Walt. "Wicked Architecture" (''Life Illustrated,'' July 19,1856) - mainly about dwelling-houses. Part II from a series, "New York Dissected". This was unsigned, but has been attributed to Whitman by scholars. https://whitmanarchive.org/published/periodical/journalism/tei/per.00270.html. On Image 5 of the scanned page images listed. <br />
*Wikipedia. "First Houses." [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Houses. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Houses. ]<br />
*Wohl, Anthony S. (1977). ''The Eternal Slum: Housing and Social Policy in Victorian London''. Originally published in 1977 by Edward Arnold (Publishers) Ltd; Published 2002 by Transaction Publishers; Published 2017 by Routledge.
| |||