Homelessness

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"Homelessness is the condition of people without a permanent dwelling, such as a house or apartment. People who are homeless are most often unable to acquire and maintain regular, safe, secure and adequate housing. The legal definition of homeless varies from country to country, or among different jurisdictions in the same country or region. The term homelessmay also include people whose primary night-time residence is in a homeless shelter, a domestic violence shelter, long-term residence in a motel, a vehicle, squatting, cardboard boxes, a tent city, tarpaulins, shanty town structures made of discarded building materials or other ad hoc housing situations.  United States government homeless enumeration studies also include people who sleep in a public or private place not designed for use as a regular sleeping accommodation for human beings."
-- Wikipedia: "Homelessness"

This article considers selected aspects of the topic.

History of concepts / terms

Vagrancy has been a term in use, and object of criminalization, at least since the 16th century in England. 'Hobo' and 'tramp' came from post-Civil War era, having different connotations, latter used more in UK. 'Traveller' is sometimes used as less-pejorative term, associated with and sometimes specifically meaning gypsy or Roma-identifying groups.

Disaffiliation, or being disaffiliated from family and other social networks, has also been used in research studies back to earlier 20thC, especially in social-science contexts, pioneered by [University of] Chicago School in sociology. 'Transient' is a usage going back many decades, particularly associated with criminal classification and enforcement against the homeless, and now generally deprecated.

'Homeless' prior to the 1980s did not necessarily imply unhoused, but mostly meant disaffiliated. 'Homeless' in the present sense -- to mean unsheltered or possibly in special-case settings such as shelters, hospitals, and prisons -- dates from the early 1980s. [locate origins?]. Unsheltered is used in the US to describe a condition of living in places not meant for human habitation, e.g. outside; it is considered a subset of the homeless population.

In the UK, "rough sleeping" is commonly used to describe being unsheltered.

Today, many advocates or people with experience of homelessness deprecate use of 'homeless', e.g. "homeless people", on the idea that it is defining people's identity based on what is only a transitory and inessential condition. Also, there is an idea that 'home' is something different than having housing, and a person without conventional housing may feel they have a 'home' in a certain location or community. (this actually revives in a way the earlier-20th concept that 'homeless' may not mean unhoused').

Some prefer 'unhoused' or 'houseless', others in more careful/official contexts may prefer "people experiencing homelessness, or abbreviated, PEH. 'Houseless' has the advantages that it can often be substituted in place of 'homeless' while sounding similar and maintaining 'H'-using acronyms. For example, there is an advocacy group/term HouselessFirst which may be referencing and implicitly critiquing the 'Housing First' model of homelessness response.

'Homelessness' doesn't really fall under the same criticism as 'homeless' does, because it describes a state rather than an identity. Nonetheless, some still don't like it and instead use e.g. 'houselessness'.

Looking at it in a larger context, of course many to most humans in our species' history have lived in what we would call transient or migratory patterns. That may be permanently nomadic, as has survived into modern times in Central Asia and Africa and subgroups like Roma / Traveller groups. Often it was seasonal migratory, possibly with homesteads and partial or full structures left in place in the off-season locations. Or, food-source migratory, following migrating animal herds or relocation of food-producing lands as climate and fertility shifted.

The portion of humanity living in what are considered displaced or refugee situations has now reached its highest point in history since the previous height just after WWII. It's now often predicted that climate-change disruption will increase this displacement to a higher level than ever in recorded history. Some, however, argue, that this will be essentially returning to a geological-scale terrestrial norm of wide climate fluctuations, after an anomolously-stable few millennia which gave rise to our present civilization of fixed agriculture, settlement, cities, and landed property.  

 

Cultural history 

Some view mobile vs fixed living as a fundamental cultural conflict that continues to play out, for example in discriminatory attitudes/laws regarding mobile and manufactured housing, more vs less permanent building forms, and residents of the less fixed, site-built, or permanent housing forms. (mobile/manufactured housing is largely disallowed in Portland, e.g.!). The founder of "landscape studies," John Brinckerhoff Jackson, is associated with this view, from his studies of mobile and light-weight housing forms in the U.S., e.g. classic essay "The Movable Dwelling and How It came to America." [Jackson 1984].

There is a school of interpretation of the Cain and Able story that sees it as reflecting ancient conflicts between older nomadic groups or social strata -- 'Able' meaning shepherd or wanderer -- versus newer, agricultural economy, 'Cain' figure in some descriptions etymologically related to 'city.' In this analysis, Cain's killing of Able represents the new culture/society's persecution of the older [Allen 2012]. Cain is punished by, ironically, casting him out to be "a fugitive and a vagabond in the earth" (Genesis 4:14, KJV translation) -- this well-known usage from KJV is probably a reference point for later laws against vagabondage and vagrancy.

Cain later, however, becomes a "founder of cities," representing the regime of property and land rent and fixed dwelling, in its next iteration from agriculture to urban economy. The cities, in today's US as in ancient Israel, tend to prohibit and exclude the 'transient' or people inclined to it.

 

Housing First

see main article: Housing First

from December, 2016 literature review and commentary [Kertesz et al 2016]: 

"Advocates for ending homelessness have increasingly turned to a financial argument, claiming that permanent supportive housing will deliver net cost savings to society." "We believe the cost-savings argument is problematic and that it would be better to reframe the discussion to focus primarily on the best way to meet this population’s needs." "Higher-quality randomized, controlled trials...haven’t demonstrated net cost savings." "Staking the future of Housing First on the expectation that it will save money could undermine efforts to deliver an effective intervention to the majority of the population it’s intended to serve."

 

[Baxter et al 2019]: 

"the data included in this review were exclusively from North America and the participants were all selected on the basis of complex health needs (such as mental illness, substance abuse or chronic physical illness) as per the principles of HF.16 17 This may limit the generalisability of our findings internationally, as well as to homeless people without complex health needs."

"Our systematic review found that HF resulted in large improvements in housing stability; with unclear short-term impact on health and well-being outcomes. For mental health, quality of life and substance use, no clear differences were seen when compared with TAU [Treatment As Usual].. HF participants showed a clear reduction in non-routine use of healthcare services, over TAU. This may be an indicator of improvements in health."

"Housing First approaches do not appear to consistently improve or harm health in the short-term, but long-term impacts are unknown." 

 

Writings / work by the homeless

International Network of Street Papers

Homeless-run newspapers (street paper):
    StreetRoots, Portland; and 100+ other cities. 

Israel Bayer of Portland, longtime editor of Street Roots, is now working for INSP to launch a North American Bureau. 

 

Faces of Homelessness Speakers’ Bureau

a program of the National Coalition for the Homeless

 

Invisible People / Mark Horvath


Doreen Traylor

a resident of coastal Washington State, Doreen has a background in urban studies and housing, and lived experience with homelessness, offers writing/editing services (see About page) and publishes about homelessness and related issues online in various places, including: 

Note from Doreen:

"Here's another blog by a homeless person (I have read only part of one page, no clue how good most of it is)
https://nilskidoo.blackblogs.org/throwing-stones-at-the-mossbacks-gathered/."  [page not loading when we tried it 11 Sept 2019]. 

 

 

References

Recommended overviews

  • Ellen, Ingrid Gould, and Brendan O'Flaherty, Editors. How to House the Homeless (Russell Sage Foundation, 2010).
  • Hopper, Kim, and Jim Baumohl. (1996). "Redefining the Cursed Word: A Historical Interpretation of American Homelessness." in Baumohl, Jim, ed. Homelessness in America (1996). .
  • O’Flaherty, Brendan. 2019. “Homelessness Research: A Guide for Economists (and Friends).” Journal of Housing Economics 44 (2019): 1–25. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhe.2019.01.003.  Accepted manuscript: https://drive.google.com/open?id=1gxVex3Ph82h6sRVilNkfWzvS4GsB6gGN.
    .
  • Ocobock, Paul. (2008). "Vagrancy and Homelessness in Global and Historical Perspective." https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctt1rfsq2g.4. (Introduction to A. L. Beier, A. L., and Paul Ocobock, eds. (2008). Cast Out: Vagrancy and Homelessness in Global and Historical Perspective. Ohio University Press, 2008. https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctt1rfsq2g). [Open Access].


Articles/papers

Books

  • Anderson, Nels. The hobo; the sociology of the homeless man (1923). Full text at Internet Archive. 
     
  • Baumohl, Jim, ed., for the National Coalition for the Homeless (1996). Homelessness in America. Oryx Press, 1996. 
    Google Books preview: https://books.google.com/books/about/Homelessness_In_America.html?id=9QGNV5dXevcC. 
    Chapters: 
    Part 1, "History Definitions, and Causes," includes: 
    1. "Redefining the Cursed Word: A Historical Interpretation of American Homelessness" (Kim Hopper and Jim Baumohl); 
    2. "Homelessness: Definitions and Counts" (Martha R. Burt); 
    3. "The Causes of Homelessness" (Paul Koegel, M. Audrey Burnam, and Jim Baumohl); 
    4. "Housing Policy: A General Consideration" (Cushing N. Dolbeare); 
    5. "Why the Road off the Street is Not Paved with Jobs" (Bristow Hardin); and 
    6. "Income Maintenance: Little Help Now, Less on the Way" (Mark H. Greenberg and Jim Baumohl). Part 2, "Dimensions of Homelessness," includes: 
    7. "Rural Homelessness: A Synopsis" (Laudan Y. Aron and Janet M. Fitchen); 
    8. "Material Survival Strategies on the Street: Homeless People as Bricoleurs" (David A. Snow, Leon Anderson, Theron Quist, and Daniel Cress); 
    9. "Homeless Veterans" (Robert Rosenheck, Catherine A. Leda; Linda K. Frisman; Julie Lam, and An-Me-Chung); 
    10. "Homeless Families are Different" (Marybeth Shinn and Beth C. Weitzman); 
    11. "Homelessness among African Americans: A Historical and Contemporary Perspective" (Kim Hopper and Norweeta G. Milburn); and 
    12. "Homelessness and the Latino Paradox" (Susan Gonzalez Baker). Part 3, "Responses to Homelessness," includes: 
    13. "Public Attitudes and Beliefs about Homeless People" (Bruce G. Link, Jo C. Phelan, Ann Stueve, Robert E. Moore, Michaeline Bresnahan, and Elmer L. Struening); 
    14. "Municipal Regulation of the Homeless in Public Spaces" (Harry Simon); 
    15. "The Federal Response: The Stewart B. McKinney Homeless Assistance Act" (Maria Foscarinis); 
    16. "Responses by the States to Homelessness" (Vicki Watson); 
    17. "Responding to the Needs of Homeless People with Alcohol, Drug, and/or Mental Disorders" (Deirdre Oakley and Deborah L. Dennis); 
    18. "Preventing Homelessness" (Eric N. Lindblom); and 
    19. "Dilemmas of Local Antihomelessness Movements" (Rob Rosenthal). An appendix presents information clearinghouses, national organizations, and state organizations. 
     
  • Baxter, Ellen, and Kim Hopper. Private Lives / Public Spaces (1981).
  • Blau, Joel. The Visible Poor: Homelessness in the United States (1992). 
     
  • Burt, Martha R. Over the Edge: The Growth of Homelessness in the 1980s. New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1992. 
    Amazon preview: https://www.amazon.com/dp/0871541785/.
    Google Books preview: https://books.google.com/books?id=doK4BgAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false/.
     
  • DePastino, Todd (2003). Citizen Hobo: How a Century of Homelessness Shaped America. University of Chicago Press, 2003.  http://libgen.is/book/index.php?md5=7AE2D6F25EA8B48C1CF022A588C15B2B.
     
  • Desmond, Matthew. Evicted: Poverty and Profit in the American City (2016). PDF.  ePub. 
     
  • Ellen, Ingrid Gould, and Brendan O'Flaherty, Editors. How to House the Homeless (Russell Sage Foundation, 2010).
  • Feldman, Leonard C. Citizens without Shelter: Homelessness, Democracy, and Political Exclusion. (Cornell University Press, 2006).
     
  • Heben, Andrew. Tent City Urbanism: From Self-Organized Camps to Tiny House Villages (2012). 
  • Glasser, I. (1994). Homelessness in global perspective. New York: G.K. Hall Reference.
     
  • Gowan, Teresa. Hobos, Hustlers, and Backsliders: Homeless in San Francisco. (University of Minnesota Press, 2010). 
     
  • Hailey, Charlie (2008). Campsite: Architectures of Duration and Place. Louisiana State University Press, 2008. https://www.amazon.com/Campsite-Architectures-Duration-Place-Voices/dp/080713323X.
  • Hailey, Charlie. Camps: A Guide to 21st-Century Space. (MIT Press, 2009). LibGen.
       
  • Hopper, Kim. Reckoning With Homelessness. (Cornell University Press, 2002).   
       
  • Katz. The Undeserving Poor (1st edition 1989). 
     
  • Kerouac, Jack. "The Hobo in America", in Lonesome Traveller. 
     
  • Kusmer, Kenneth L.. (2001). Down and Out, on the Road: The Homeless in American History. Oxford University Press, 2001.  
     
  • Levinson, David, ed. (2004). Encyclopedia of Homelessness. http://1.droppdf.com/files/uMBPZ/encyclopedia-of-homelessness.pdf.
    Noted: 
      Almhouses: Poorhouses, Workhouses
      Literature, Hobo and Tramp
      "Shelter" entry by Kim Hopper, p.526-531
      Literature on Homelessness: Appendix 1: Bibliography of Autobiographical and Fictional Accounts  
        of Homelessness;
      Appendix 4: Documentary History of Homelessness.
     
  • London, Jack. The Road (1903). 
  • Mitchell, Don. Mean Streets: Homelessness, Public Space, and the Limits of Capital. University of Georgia Press, 2020. [see also Don Mitchell for discussion/excerpts].
  • Mosher, Heather Irene, "Participatory Action Research with Dignity Village: An Action Tool for Empowerment Within a Homeless Community" (2010). Portland State University, Dissertations and Theses. Paper 36. http://doi.org/10.15760/etd.36.  
  • O'Flaherty, Brendan. The Economics of Homelessness (Harvard University Press,1998). 
     
  • Okin, Robert L. Silent Voices: People with Mental Disorders on the Street (2014). 
     
  • Piven, Francis, and Richard Cloward. Regulating the Poor: The Functions of Public Welfare (1971).http://libgen.is/search.php?req=piven+regulating+the+poor.
     
  • Quigley, John M, Stephen Raphael, and Eugene Smolensky. "Homelessness in California." Public Policy Institute of California, 2001. http://www.ppic.org/publication/homelessness-in-california/. 
     
  • Rossi, Peter H. (1991). Down and Out in America: The Origins of Homelessness. University of Chicago Press, 1991. 
    http://libgen.is/search.php?req=rossi+down+and+out+in+america.
  • Shinn, Marybeth, and Jill Khadduri (2020). In the Midst of Plenty: Homelessness and What To Do About It. Wiley-Blackwell, April 2020. ISBN: 9781405181259.  
  • Tucker, William (1990). Excluded Americans: Homelessness and Housing Policies. Regnery Press, 1990. 
    http://libgen.is/book/index.php?md5=F58A23B817EC5E11F7F70BEBCDE53179.
     
  • Willse, Craig. The Value of Homelessness: Managing Surplus Life in the United States. (University of Minnesota Press, 2015). http://libgen.is/book/index.php?md5=EB79F8AF2C442CD805D80384FD4D098E. 
     
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